Jane Eyre And Remains Of The Day By Kazuo Ishiguro

Writers present issues of self awareness through common craft such as Narrative technique, Point of view, Setting description and dialogue. Charlotte Brontà «Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s â€Å" Jane Eyre† and â€Å"Remains of the Day† by Kazuo Ishiguro both are told from the main protagonists point of view, and brings out their growing self awareness in themselves. The former is able to grow from this experience while the latter is unable to adapt and is therefore his growth is stunted. Jane Eyre , the main character of â€Å"Jane Eyre† is narrating her life from her infancy to her present married life. Her book began with her as a penniless orphan and as she is not directly related to the current head she does not have a position and is not seen as important. as the book progresses the reader is able to in a sense grow up with the child and learn her oddities and her righteousness with morals. One also becomes aware of her grown perception of self. Although she did begin as a s trong willed person, her status did not allow her to be conscious of her self first. The main protagonist of â€Å"Remains of the Day† is a butler who begins his story to go visit an old acquaintance that worked with him 20 years ago. Stevens s position as butler, and consequently as servant, has gradually made it impossible for him to show any emotion. One of the memories that are brought up to the reader is of when his father dies, Stevens is too occupied with worrying about being a proper butler to mourn . This is something

Why Social Capitol Is Important For The United States Of...

It is important to effectively integrate immigrants, and get them participating in Canadian political affairs. This will help Canadian society in the long term as it allows for a clearer understanding on how it is that their marginalized immigrant populous desires to be represented. Canada’s diverse population has various needs, and ethnic minorities are amalgamated as outliers as they continue to experience various forms of persistent inequality in the shape of social exclusion (and more specifically, social capitol). The purpose of this essay is to demonstrate why social capitol is important to immigrants, identify immigrant voting patterns in accumulation to how social capitol influences them, in addition to proposing a solution that†¦show more content†¦One of the ways in which social capitol seeks to incorporate immigrants into the fold of Canadian politics is through the pursuit of education and the comprehension of language (Nakhaie, 2). Education and language work unanimously in boosting immigrant participation levels in politics. It is through a greater knowledge base in education, paired with a comprehension in language that allows immigrants to acquire information and understand the mechanisms that relate to political participation (Nakhaie, 2). Basically, as an immigrant’s education increases the language barrier depletes this allows for an immigrant to contribute and participate to a greater extent in politics because of the diminishing language barrier (Nakhaie, 1). The development of effective and stable government depends significantly upon the alignment that people have in regards to the political process (Henderson, 2). This can be seen expressed in the people through another form of social capitol being the amount of trust that they have in the political system (Nakhaie, 3). The level of tolerance exercised, and norms of political responsibility that they feel they implement in order to ensure political co-operation and action social cohesion is critical for societies to prosper economically through means such as education and for development to be sustainable (Henderson, 2). Social capital is not just the sum of the institutions that fortify a society, but a binding element that

Birth of America free essay sample

Over the years a lot of things have shaped the colonies. We call this the Birth of America. More than 200 years ago there were British, Dutch, French and Spanish colonies in North America. They were the first 13 states. When people came from Europe to America they noticed It was very different from their previous life. In the colonies land was cheap unlike Europe, and people looked forward to owning their own land. In Europe only the rich could own land. With the benefits In the colonies, Germany, Holland and Sweden and brought their customs with them. These traditions and customs are what shaped the colonies. Since the King of Great Brutal TLD pay much attention to the colonies, they started to govern themselves. In 1 764, there was an act call the sugar act that put tax on foreign sugar and increased taxes on coffee, indigo, and certain kinds of wine. It banned rum from being imported and also French wines. We will write a custom essay sample on Birth of America or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These taxes only affected a certain portion of the population, but the affected merchants were very vocal. Besides, the taxes were raised without the permission of the colonists. This was one of the first circumstances in which colonists wanted a say in how much they were taxed. The next event was The Boston Massacre. It happened after drunken colonists started to throw snowballs at the British officials. The British shot at them and killed five people. The colonists were furious and the British were mad as well. No one seemed to be siding with the British except John Adams. He sided with them to put on a fair trial. He claimed that the officers were provoked to fire at the colonists. Then the 13 colonies boycotted the British goods. That was a huge problem for the British because the colonists were a major part of their trading. That was also a problem for the colonists because the British provided them with almost everything hey needed.The colonists were very resistant to give up their tea but eventually did The Boston Tea Party was the last event historically that led to the American Revolution. The colonists pretended to be Indians and came on the three boats that the British had docked, this made the British furious, and they dumped all of the tea Into Boston Harbor. The tea being thrown was hundreds of dollars down the drain. This resulted In a war. The American Revolution started In 1775- 1783. By skirmishers Europe to America they noticed it was very different from their previous life.In the own land. In Europe only the rich could own land. With the benefits in the colonies, the population expanded from 2. 5 million to 4 million. People came from France, traditions and customs are what shaped the colonies. Since the King of Great Britain didnt pay much attention to the colonies, they started to govern themselves. In 1764, there was an act call the sugar act that put tax on foreign sugar and into Boston Harbor.

Learning and Communicating Online Collaborative Learning

Question: Discuss what you have learnt about finding, using and evaluating online sources for academic communicationa? Answer: Internet and online resources have become catalysts for the contemporary learning style which is paving paths innovative learning opportunities and problem solving techniques (Macdonald, 2003). Collaborative online learning is a methodology to capitalize the sharing of innovative ideas over a platform for distributing the roles systematically. The online collaborative learning approach is suitable in the sense of idea formation, resource utilization, strategy evaluation, time utilization etc. Virtual classrooms and virtual space can aid in creating a network of students over the online portal. The unprecedented levels of informational technology and skills have made the signature for new tech savvy generation (Smith, 1992). There is a learning revolution empowered by online communication portals. Some examples of the credible online tools for collaborative learning are MERLOT expanded as Multimedia Educational Resource for Leaning Online Teaching is a resource providing links to online materials in plethora of subjects. Various other portals provide research papers of IEEE and other platforms giving accountable storehouse of information. CLOE, Cooperative Learning Object Exchange is a collaborative project taken up by universities to develop resources that are multimedia rich in nature and are available freely for use in the course teaching and learning purposes. INFOMINE is basically a portal for virtual library of resources relevant to students, faculty, and staff at the level of university. It is a storehouse of electronic journals, databases, electronic books, articles, directories, bulletin boards, online library card catalogs, research papers, mailing lists (Warschauer, 1997) etc. HorizonLive is a leading provider and platform for synchronous frameworks supporting live and web based collaboration under e learning including the features of web conferencing and interactive webcasts. Real time and web based communications can be made effective with its use. The biggest controversies of the time is to judge the credibility of the internet or online resource present for learning and study purposes. The learners and collaborative societies must have a critical eye to filter the credible resources (Metzger, 2010) and refer them for future study purposes. Most important aspect to consider is the evidence about the authority, knowledge, qualifications and credentials of the author publishing a particular piece of information. Second stage is to authenticate the organization associated with it along with certifications and reviews (Hilligoss, 2008). The author must have peer reviews for credential information sources. The information providing links and the online collaborative portals or libraries should be up to date to avoid any kind of discrepancies in the credible data. There must be a complete list of citations along with page numbers explicitly mentioned. The perspectives of the authors must not be generally biased and must specifically clarify the goals and presenting a fair focus over the topic mentioned. Internal links are preferable in a credential and authentic resource so as to focus over the attention of the author over the potential needs of a reader or a beginner in that subject. There are certain checkpoints that need to be kept in mind in the process of evaluation of the credibility of the source such as the type of source, date of publishing, the sources cited for its reference, objectivity and clarity, the background of the author (Brown, 2007) etc. Perceived credibility is the sum total of perceived trustworthiness along with perceived expertise (Greer, 2003). Incorporation of social validation, online trustees, and some of the profile based websites is the first step in the path of credible evaluation of online information. Online resources for a collaborative study is are escalating the level of competence and intellect among the users who can collaborate and learn together even after being thousand miles apart. Online learning predominantly includes self learning or training but this independent work can be transformed into collaborative form to play a valuable role in the process of learning. Shared understanding for a collaborative learning platform is far better than just merely sharing information and therefore, online collaborative portals promote shared understanding by creating a virtual space. Online learning helps in providing a sense of reflection and thinking, promoting differential learning options, the ability to bring people together by connecting them over a common platform etc. There are some of the attributes of online collaborative learning like group dialog, knowledge development, presentation of acquired knowledge and computer mediated communication (Curtis, 2001). Web 2.0 have revolutionized the outlook of collaborative learning by providing unimaginable levels of framework and environment to support collaborative learning. There have been development of free and user f riendly tools for promoting collaborative online learning. The portal is for co-creation of knowledge (Reeves, 2004) rather than just sharing and disseminating. The assessment of the philosophy behind online learning was based over the degree of knowledge construction, willingness of stakeholders to invest further in planning, designing, modelling, implementing and monitoring the necessary, scope of synchronous and asynchronous forms of communication in an online community (Stacey, 2007), innovation of new tools and methodologies in the same field, development of a clear rubrics for collaborative learning model etc. The stages of computer aided collaborative learning are communication, collaboration, cooperation, and community development. On one hand there are plethora of benefits leveraged out of online collaborative learning but on the same time there is a shady side too attached with it. Collaborative learning is one of the most economical way of leaning and sharing information in addition with provision of innovation. There is an escalated level of responsiveness as more number of resources can be used by the group as a whole. There will be an increased expertise in the group and every individual can gain something from it. With better decision making a lean learning model can be adopted with minimization of waste (Palloff, 1999) so as to get understanding of a broader picture of the changing and dynamic learning environments. In addition to access to a rich content and information storehouse, online collaborative learning groups provide an opportunity to connect and interact with the peers so as to maintain and uphold the level of intellect of the group. Instead of being passive receptors of knowledge and informa tion, learners are active participants in the whole process of learning (Redmond, 2006). In addition to creating a positive learning outcome in the academic background there have been affective, social and ethical escalation from the process of learning. It is a tool for promoting critical thinking skills by active participation, modelling of appropriate problem solving technique, personalization of lectures and tutorials (McAlpine, 2000) and motivation of the whole group under collaborative learning. There is a comprehensive and collaborative development of social support system by building diversity and creating a positive atmosphere for participation and cooperation.in addition there are psychological benefits too that is concerned with reduction of anxiety, development of self esteem and positive attitude etc. With the virtual nature of discussion and communication boards, students tend to be more democratic and free to express their views and thoughts by sharing it with everyon e who requires them. Many a times there is a lack of flexible implementation strategy that kills the uniqueness of every individual and their level of understanding, grasping or learning. There are some point of times in the whole process of collaborative online learning where the decision making can become protracted or complex and a coherent decision (Thorpe, 2002) is far from the sight. This can happen because of lack of a direct form of communication which is taking place just in the virtual space. The quantity and quality of interactivity can vary to a greater limit from one environment to another. One of the great disadvantage is to rely on any individual for information sharing as there is no such proof for the authenticity and credibility of the sources. Therefore, special care should be taken towards verifying the credibility of the sources of shared information. There is a possibility of escalation of faux leaders (Oliver, 1999) within the group to create more tension and complexity in the grou p. Computer aided collaborative learning should be considered as the panacea of every situation and condition of learning environment. Another aspect is the difficulty in evaluation of the online learning or collaborative group learning as it rises problems for the tutors and the instructors. There can be sometimes uneven distribution of workload and some individuals may get stressed with this form of implementation. Self centered and individual research is abandoned in this model and framework of study as it more likely generalize the diversity of interests (So, 2009) and the ability to produce uniqueness in the knowledge sharing. Artificial discussions are unable to create a holistic impact every time and hence the influential nature of the online learning may be suppressed (Fung*, 2004) by the overpowering nature of the knowledge and the bulk of information having various links to the other websites which may prove to be cumbersome. Therefore, online collaborative learning portals are the future for the 21st century and computer aided learning is becoming the buzzword for todays generation. E learning environments are on a hike and critical thinking is enhanced and refined with fast paced transparent learning frameworks. Modelling of such techniques will lead to a bright future and global competitive environments. There will be social, cognitive, psychological, intellectual and every form of growth and development by overcoming all the challenges. References 1. Macdonald, J. (2003). Assessing online collaborative learning: process and product. Computers Education, 40(4), 377-391.2. Smith, B. L., MacGregor, J. T. (1992). What is collaborative learning?.3. Warschauer, M. (1997). Computerà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ mediated collaborative learning: Theory and practice. The Modern Language Journal, 81(4), 470-481.4. Metzger, M. J., Flanagin, A. J., Medders, R. B. (2010). Social and heuristic approaches to credibility evaluation online. Journal of Communication, 60(3), 413-439.5. Metzger, M. J. (2007). Making sense of credibility on the Web: Models for evaluating online information and recommendations for future research. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 58(13), 2078-2091.6. Hilligoss, B., Rieh, S. Y. (2008). Developing a unifying framework of credibility assessment: Construct, heuristics, and interaction in context.Information Processing Management, 44(4), 1467-1484.7. Brown, J., Broderick, A. J., Lee, N. (2007 ). Word of mouth communication within online communities: Conceptualizing the online social network. Journal of interactive marketing, 21(3), 2-20.8. Greer, J. D. (2003). Evaluating the credibility of online information: A test of source and advertising influence. Mass Communication and Society, 6(1), 11-28.9. Curtis, D. D., Lawson, M. J. (2001). Exploring collaborative online learning.Journal of Asynchronous learning networks, 5(1), 21-34.10. Reeves, T. C., Herrington, J., Oliver, R. (2004). A development research agenda for online collaborative learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 52(4), 53-65.11. Stacey, E. (2007). Collaborative learning in an online environment. International Journal of E-Learning Distance Education, 14(2), 14-33.12. Palloff, R. M., Pratt, K. (1999). Building learning communities in cyberspace(Vol. 99). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.13. Redmond, P., Lock, J. V. (2006). A flexible framework for online collaborative learning. The Internet a nd Higher Education, 9(4), 267-276.14. McAlpine, I. (2000). Collaborative learning online. Distance Education, 21(1), 66-80.15. Thorpe, M. (2002). Rethinking learner support: The challenge of collaborative online learning. Open learning, 17(2), 105-119.16. Oliver, R. (1999). Exploring strategies for online teaching and learning. Distance Education, 20(2), 240-254.17. So, H. J. (2009). When groups decide to use asynchronous online discussions: collaborative learning and social presence under a voluntary participation structure. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(2), 143-160.18. Fung*, Y. Y. (2004). Collaborative online learning: Interaction patterns and limiting factors. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning,19(2), 135-149.

How to Write a Guest Post Pitch (Based on Real Experience)

Guest posting is a common practice among bloggers and a smart move for driving traffic to your site and building your backlink profile. However, its tough to get started, especially if you dont know how to write a guest post pitch.Fortunately, once you get the hang of it, nailing your guest post pitches will feel like second nature. Its all about thinking strategically and knowing your audience. However, youll need to consider your audience as both the blog youre submitting to and the target reader.A quick note before we begin. We asked our friends at WordCandy to write this guide based on their in-depth experience with guest blogging. We figured that if were going to publish a detailed guide on pitching guest posts, we might as well get it done by someone whos expert on the topic. Enter John:At WordCandy, we spend a lot of time writing guest posts for other blogs. In our experience, when it comes to pitching ideas, appealing to everyone along the chain is vital for landing the gig.I n this article, well discuss five key steps we at WordCandy have found helpful in pitching guest posts to other blogs. Lets dive right in! individual bloggers as you can find. However, this strategy is not much different than throwing fistfuls of spaghetti against the wall and hoping it sticks.The first step to a successful guest post pitch is to choose your target blogs carefully. This can help you avoid wasting time on publications that arent a solid fit for your style, content, and ideal audience.A wise place to start is by looking atThe blogs you read.Businesses where you currently shop.Chances are, your target audience may be into the content these entities produce, too. Plus, because youll ideally like the publication youre writing for, youre more likely to feel motivated to give them your best work.Whats more, blogs and businesses whose audiences overlap with yours can be a source of long-term future relationships. This means your guest post pitch isnt necessarily a proposal for a one-time deal. It carries an implicit offer of further work and could lead to additional guest posts or brand deals.Apart from these types of publications, looking for other blogs that are similar to yours and also have a small following can be mutually beneficial. Chances are other new or small-time bloggers are also eager for a chance to guest post. Offering a post on your blog could help you land one on theirs, although its not something we do currently at WordCandy.2. Research your target blog (and reach out if necessary)Once youve crafted a shortlist of blogs where youd like to guest post, its time to do some research. Even if you think youre familiar with your target blog, this step is still key. You may know a blog as a reader, but thats different from knowing it as a writer.First, look around the site and see if theres any information about guest posting. The blog youre targeting may have guidelines youll want to follow if you want them to accept your pitch.The ThemeIs le guest post guidelinesNext, check out their archives and be on the lookout for any gaps in their content you could fill. The best pitches will offer something to the target blog which that blog currently cant offer – such as your expertise on a subject the blogs audience is interested in. This is where being an authority within your niche could land you work.Note information such as:Post lengthImage usageToneStyleAs a guest poster, youll probably be able to bring some of your own unique voice to your post. However, your target blog will still want your work to blend in well with their overall content strategy.If youre lucky, you may sometimes have sites reach out to you and offer you a chance to guest post. However, more often than not youll be the one who has to make contact. At this point, you should be ready to reach out and ask the target blog if theyre interested in working with you.3. Come up with one or more topic ideasWith any luck, your research will pay off and yo ur target blog will respond to say theyre willing to hear your pitch. This means its time for more research – as such, youll need to pitch some topic ideas.Some of the information youve gathered in the first two steps will be useful, such as gaps you found in the archives or other subjects related to your niche. However, there are additional features that make up a well-crafted topic idea, too.For starters, dont forget about search engine optimization (SEO). Choosing topics with high-volume keywords will show the target blog you know what youre doing and may incentivize them to accept your pitch, as a well-optimized post will drive traffic their way as well.Trending topics can also be solid material, provided you have a unique take on them. Stay away from repeating the same information readers can find anywhere on the web and instead put a fresh spin on it.Unless the target blog has specifically asked you not to, its wise to come up with more than one topic idea to pitch. Thi s way if they reject one, theres still a chance theyll take another. Three to five ideas is ideal, and any rejected ideas can form part of a pull-list for future guest post submissions.4. Write a concise summary of each ideaOnce youve chosen the topics you want to pitch, youll need to write up a short description for each of them. This should include:The posts headline or titleAn SEO keyword (optional, but potentially helpful)Suitable anchor text and URL. This is also optional, but will be the lead generator for the post itself, so it pays to heavily consider including it.A summary of what the post will includeFor the summary, youll want to keep things brief but also provide a comprehensive look at what your proposed post will include. Start with a brief explanation of what it will cover, such as A guide to writing guest post pitches for bloggers.Youll also want to mention any key brands, products, or services you intend to feature. This will ensure you dont blindside the target blo g with links they dont approve of. Doing so can seem suspicious or potentially spammy, which is the last thing you want.You might also consider including any key references you plan to cite. This is especially crucial for interview-style posts, for instance. While you dont need a whole bibliography by any means, a citation or two can make you appear knowledgeable and reputable, and hint at the depth youll provide.5. Submit your topic idea(s) to the target blogYoure now ready to send your pitches off to the target blog for approval. Make sure theyre formatted in a clear, readable way to avoid confusion. We typically use a format like the following:First Headline.  [Keyword]. [Anchor text]. A short description of the post, followed by any points of interest we plan to include.Second Headline. [Keyword]. [Anchor text]. The posts short description, then a summary of any important aspects we plan to include.Its also considerate to include a little personalized thank-you to the person w ho will be reading your pitch. Showing that youre agreeable and easy to work with can make you more desirable as a guest poster.Finally, keep in mind that – especially on large sites – it can take a while to hear back from your target blog. Online content is fast-paced, so hopefully, theyll respond to you quickly. However, they also likely have other responsibilities, which could delay their feedback. In short, dont expect a quick win unless youve made direct and personal contact with the person in charge of publishing.ConclusionGuest posting can help get your blogs name out into your niche and drive traffic to your site. Learning how to write a guest post pitch is an important skill for bloggers looking to expand their reach.In this post, weve discussed five steps we use at WordCandy to write top-notch guest post pitches:Choose your target blog.Research your target blog (and reach out if necessary).Come up with one or more topic ideas.Write a concise summary of each i dea.Submit your topic ideas to the target blog. Learn how to #write a guest post pitch that major #blogs will actually accept âÅ" Ã¯ ¸  #blogging Click To Tweet Do you have any questions about how to write a guest post pitch that gets accepted? Let us know in the comments section below!Free guide5 Essential Tips to Speed Up Your WordPress SiteReduce your loading time by even 50-80% just by following simple tips.

Leadership and Management Essay

Leadership and Management Essay Leadership and Management Essay Alex Caprio Bus mgmt. Joanne Orabone 10 Dec 2012 1. Leadership is where individuals motivate and have some type of effect /influence on other people. Leadership focuses on the process of what is happening now rather than later and doing the right thing. For example, someone with leadership qualities will have a positive attitude at work, does the work right themselves and helping people at the same time do improve and gain confidence. Managers are people who see the overall of a company and make sure everything is running smoothly. They solve the problems of the company and how things get done. For example, Managers in a department store are normally upper management like a store manager or shift manager. These managers see what the entire store needs to get done for the day like what needs to be changed and what needs to be put on the shelves. These managers make sure shipments come in on freight trucks and are put out to consumers. If there is a problem with something no being done by an employee or any issue for that matter a manager will take care of it. 2. Physiological need or Basic needs like food, water, air. Safety needs like security and stability Belonging and love needs which are family and relationships. If people feel loved at home and have a sense of belonging at home or in any environment they will have a more positive attitude.. Esteem needs like achievement and reputation, a person must have a high self-esteem to feel like they are wanted in the work place and have a sense of worth. 3. Integrity is doing what’s right

European Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

European Law - Essay Example The European Union law is a set of treaties, law and court judgments. These operate alongside the legal systems of the member states of the European Union. It has a direct effect among within the member states of the European Union. When conflicts occur this law takes precedence over national laws. The primary source of the European law is the European Union treaties. These treaties are set on broad policy goals and establish institutions that can enact various types of legislations in order to achieve these goals. There are two types of legislative acts of the European Union, they are regulations and directives. Regulations become law when they come into force in member countries. They do not require any implementing measures and automatically overrides conflicting domestic provisions. The directives of the European Union require member states to achieve a certain result. Meanwhile it is left to the member countries how they are to be implemented. All the European Union legislations derive from the decisions that are taken at the European Union level. But the implementation largely occurs on the national level. Therefore the principle of uniformity is one of the central themes in the decisions made by the European court of justice. This court aims to ensure that the application and interpretation of the European Union laws does not differ between the member states (Application of EU law. 2010). The general principle of the law is found in almost every legal systems of Europe. Moreover the European court of justice has induced them into the legal orders to supplement all the written sources of the law and the treaties that are used as an aid for interpretation. The main principles of this law are protection of fundamental rights of citizens, principle of equality and discrimination, right of defense, principle of legal certainty, principle of

E-waste Dumping - A Challenging Legal and Ethical Choice in Global Essay

E-waste Dumping - A Challenging Legal and Ethical Choice in Global Business - Essay Example This fast growing waste stream is accelerating because the global market for PCs is far from saturation and the average lifespan of a PC is decreasing rapidly - for instance for CPUs from 4-6 years in 1997 to 2 years in 2005 (Culver, 2005). PCs comprise only a fraction of all e-waste. It is estimated that in 2006 approximately 180 million mobile phones will be retired. Similar quantities of electronic waste are expected for all kinds of portable electronic devices such as PDAs, MP3 players, computer games and peripherals (O'Connell, 2002). A lot of this waste (approximately two thirds) ends up in Asian countries, mainly China and India. There this waste is dismantled by bare hands, by low paid workers. This is a very serious environmental and health hazard for those nations. This paper shall consider the ethical and legal aspect of e-waste dumping in different countries, mainly China. Unfortunately, largely for economic reasons, the developed world has used primarily one method of dealing with this crisis-exporting their e-waste to less developed countries that are unable or unwilling to protect their citizens from the resulting harm to the ecology or public health. The minute quantities of reusable minerals contained within these electronic products have value only in places with paltry wages and where health codes for their extraction are nonexistent or not enforced. As a result, studies estimate that 50% to 80% of all e-waste amassed for "recycling" are shipped abroad to countries such as China, India, and Pakistan. Researchers found that approximately 13 million computer systems were channeled to recyclers in the United States during 2002, suggesting that up to 10 million of these units moved offshore to parts of Asia. In response to the growing concern over how China will manage its increasing piles of waste electrical and electronic equipment (e-waste), central government departments have drafted a number of interrelated legislations. A national pilot program has also been initiated by the National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) to determine the most suitable model for a Chinese e-waste management system. Growing interest in the e-waste recycling business from the private sector is another indicator of the significant changes in store for China's largely unregulated and environmentally unsound e-waste processing industry. The rationale behind these legislative and market developments is clear, driven by factors such as the environmental and health impacts of e-waste recycling and disposal, and the incentive of complying with international environmental standards. Discussion America discards thousands of tons of e-waste annually. Most of this e-waste consists of computers and electronic items. Computers and electronic equipment contains toxins. The toxins in computers aren't harmful while the computer is intact. The problems start only after the computer is discarded and breaks apart, leeching its ingredients into the environment. In China, e-waste is becoming an important waste stream, both in terms of quantity and toxicity. E-waste refers to discarded appliances, such as televisions and refrigerators, as well as a variety of associated waste products, such as electrical wiring, printed wiring boards (PWBs),

How do advanced technology and related forces of modernity operate in Essay

How do advanced technology and related forces of modernity operate in relation to culture - Essay Example Cultural values cause a significant effect on how advanced technology and related forces of modernity. Diverse cultures persuade management to incorporate the unique market segment in the company advanced technology and related forces of modernity’s operation. For example, the American company is persuaded to hire a Chinese sales person to sell the American made products to the current as well as prospective Chinese clients. The use of a local resident to sell the American products in China will generate more sales than letting a Native American sell the imported American goods in China. The current and prospective Chinese clients will be more comfortable and trusting of a Chinese neighbor, relative, friend, or resident selling the benefits of imported American goods and services. The Chinese sales person can introduce the benefits of eating the Chinese version of the popular American hamburgers to the current and prospective local Chinese clients. The Chinese would surely pre fer hamburgers more if the modern technology and forces of modernity, known as fast food chain stores, sell the modern day hamburger and other fast food products and services (fast food chain selling versus the traditional style of Chinese food establishment) are handled or managed by Chinese employees of the McDonalds restaurant in China (Brandt 121). Using another cultural setting, it is very clear that culture must be incorporated in the marketing strategy of the American advanced technology and related forces of modernity to ensure a huge market share when venturing into the unknown global market place, Japan. The American films, examples of advanced technology and related forces of modernity, can be easily accepted by the local residences in Japan by incorporating the Japanese culture. The American Film makers can penetrate the Japanese movie industry market by converting the American movies’ conversation pieces into Japanese voices.

Strategies for Job Satisfaction

Strategies for Job Satisfaction Introduction Job satisfaction is one of most important fields of study in the subject of human resource management. This important role of job satisfaction function leads the way in assuring high level of job satisfaction among the employees. Job satisfaction function of any HR vertical of an organization is primarily responsible for productivity of employees and the employee turnover. Since these two aspects can make or break the organizations performance in all areas, it requires attention from top management. (Lovelace Rosen, 2006) Job satisfaction function generally is part of the HR vertical with a clear mandate of motivating employee and continuously striving for higher employee job satisfaction through introduction of new policies and frameworks. The topic forms an integral part of organizational effectiveness and that has instigated me to choose this topic of job satisfaction. I shall try to study the existing literature on job satisfaction and will choose multinational companies to stud y their varied job satisfaction strategies and make analysis. (Parkes et al, 2001) Job satisfaction function is a vast topic and cannot be completely covered in this dissertation. Various researchers have already published their research articles on this subject. I shall be developing on it through understanding the different strategies used by MNCs in todays business environment for maintaining better levels of job satisfaction. Job satisfaction as stated earlier is a complex topic and hence I will try to break it down to simpler and more realistic frameworks to understand the thought process of an organization to ensuring better job satisfaction amongst its employees. (Gruneberg, 2009) According to Wood (2003), job satisfaction is the condition of contentment with ones work and its environment, denoting a positive attitude. Locke (2006) stated that, job satisfaction could be viewed as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experiences. In other words, it can also be stated that, job satisfaction was simply a function of the degree to which a job provided the worker with positively values outcomes. Wanous (2000) said that, job satisfaction was a match between a persons need and the reinforcement received from work performed in an organization. The HR vertical of any organization shall try to achieve higher levels of job satisfaction through various techniques like awards program, job rotation, internal promotion scheme, family tours and training processes. (Rounds et al, 2007) There is no destination to achieving job satisfaction but the journey is perpetual in nature. Continuous improvement is the name of the game in achieving relatively good job satisfaction amongst the employees. The measure of job satisfaction can only be achieved through comparison in similar industries and through the employee turnover and productivity data. (Jackson et al., 2001) Job satisfaction is one of the most widely discussed and enthusiastically studied constructs. However, job satisfaction is among the most difficult constructs to define. A review of literature shows that constituted definitions of the construct vary from one researcher to the next. Wood (2003) describes the job satisfaction as the condition of contentment with ones work and its in my mind, denoting a positive attitude (p.8.). Locke (2006) stated that job satisfaction could be viewed as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experiences. (p.1300) There are several reasons for studying job satisfaction. Organizations major job satisfaction primarily because of its presumed direct relationship to the short-term goals of cost reduction through increased individual productivity and reduced absences, errors, and turnover. (Cranny et al, 2002). Levels of job dissatisfaction have been found to be related to job turnover, absences, and tardiness. Turnover rates have been the most consistent major associated with job satisfaction. The potential negative consequences of employee turnover in terms of the impact of organizations. Negative effects of job turnover can include: increased costs to recruit, select and train new employer; demoralization of remaining employees; decreased social relationships among employees; negative public relations; disruption of a hi-fi and two-day activities; and decreased organizational possibilities to pursue growth strategies. In fact, several researchers reported a significant relationship between absenteeism and job satisfaction. According to Lawler (2007), the research evidence clearly shows that employees decisions about whether they will go to work on any given day and whether they will quit as affected by their feelings of job satisfaction. All the literature reviews on the subject have reached the same conclusion. The fact that present satisfaction influences future absenteeism and turnover clearly indicates that the commercial direction is from satisfaction to behavior. The literature also reveals that there is a correlation between job satisfaction and variables such as achievement, recognition, the word itself, responsibility, advancement, policy and administration, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, working conditions, age, Tenure, educational level, job activities, and gender. The Purpose of the Study The purpose to choose this topic is to analyze the importance of job satisfaction in Multi National Companies (MNCs). The reason to go for MNCs is the increase in the shift over of the employees for future growth. The shifting, thus, includes the satisfaction in the given job role. Through my research, I will try to analyze the causes and effect relationship between the employee and the factors behind job satisfaction in a given MNC. Aim of the Study The main aim of the study is to investigate the remains leading to negative and positive job satisfaction in a MNC. The Objectives of the Study The key objectives of the chosen topic are: Estimating the causes of employee attitudes. Adjudging the results of positive or negative job satisfaction Measuring the employee attitude To assess facet-specific levels of job satisfaction To measure general job satisfaction, Literature Review There are several reasons for studying job satisfaction. Organizations measure job satisfaction primarily because of its presumed direct relationship to the short-term goals of cost reduction through increased individual productivity and reduced absenteeism, errors, and dissatisfaction has been found to be related to job turnover, absenteeism and tardiness. (Glisson Durick, 2008) Turnover rates have been the most constraints measure associated with job satisfaction (Atchison Lofferts, 2002; Brayfield Crockett, 2005, Dawis Lofquist, 2001). Mowday (2004) recapitulate the probable pessimistic significance of employee turnover in terms of the impact on organizations. There are various impacts of pessimism in job satisfaction on the turnover of the company such as: Increase in the recruitment cost. Recruiting new employees and then training them as well. It can lead to reduced social relations ships among employees. No or only few public relations. Reduction in companys prospects which can hamper the growth. According to Lawler (2005), the research evidence clearly shows that employees decisions about whether they will get to work on any given day and whether they will quit are effected by their feelings of job satisfaction. The fact that present satisfaction influences future absenteeism and turnover clearly indicates the causal direction is from satisfaction to behavior. There is a correlation between job satisfaction and variables such as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, policy and administration, working conditions, supervision, job activities and gender. Research Methodology Saunders et al (2005) Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. The research to be followed is a step-by-step process. This makes the entire research process systematic. Only primary research shall be used to draw inferences. (Ryan, 2009) The sources used shall be of international repute and will be trustworthy. The main source will be case study and also some books, journals, articles and publications including Internet sources. Chapter-2: Literature review An Overview Job satisfaction in considered to ones sensation or circumstances of intelligence regarding environment of their work. Job can be prejudiced by diversity of features like quality of ones relationship with their supervisor, quality of physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment in their work, etc. Positive attitude towards job are equivalent to job satisfaction where as negative attitude towards job has been defined variously from time to time. (Cherrington et al, 2009) In short job satisfaction is a persons attitude towards job. Job satisfaction is an attitude which results from balancing summation of many specific likes and dislikes experienced in connection with the job- their evaluation may rest largely upon ones success or failure in the achievement of personal objective and upon perceived combination of the job and combination towards these ends. According to pestonejee, Job satisfaction can be taken as a summation of employees feelings in four important areas. These are: Job-nature of work (dull, dangerous, interesting), hours of work, fellow workers, opportunities on the job for encouragement and progression (prospects), eventually system, attention in work, substantial background, and machines and apparatus. Management- managerial behavior, contribution, rewards and sentence, congratulate and responsibility, leaves strategy and preference. Social relations- associates and acquaintances, neighbors, approach towards populace in society, contribution in social activity scalability and background barricade. Personal adjustment-health and emotionality. Job satisfaction is an indicator of employee productivity and employee behavior at work. This may include inter employee relations, pro-activeness of employee, employee absenteeism no. of feedbacks from employees. These all factors are a direct measure of employee satisfaction of the job. The direct correlation has been established by earlier researchers and more so there is logical evidence to it in any business or industry. (Adams, 2003) The higher levels of job satisfaction is evident in an organization through lower absenteeism rates, low employee turnover, high employee productivity , proactively level of employees, labor unrest issues and participation in managerial decisions. (Saks Ashforth, 2007) Obviously, every organization desires for higher levels of employee job satisfaction; however it is a long drawn process with continuous improvement and direct focus from the senior leadership team of the organization. Job satisfaction cannot be used interchangeably with organizational morale; which the possessions of feeling have being accepted by and belonging to a group of employees through adherence to common goals and confidence in desirability of these goals. (Bedeian et al, 2002) Morale is the by-product of the group, while job satisfaction is more an individual state of mind. Definitions of job satisfaction Different authors give various definitions of job satisfaction. Some of them are taken from the book of D.M. Pestonjee Motivation and Job Satisfaction which are given below: As per Weiss, Job satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable, emotional, state resulting from appraisal of ones job. An effective reaction to ones job. For Blum and Naylor, Job satisfaction is general attitude, which is the result of many specific attitudes in three areas namely: Precise occupation features. Personal distinctiveness Group association exterior from the work According to Glimmer, Job satisfaction is defined, as it is result of various attitudes the person hold towards the job, towards the related factors and towards the life in general. Job satisfaction is defined as any contribution, psychological, physical, and environmental circumstances that cause a person truthfully say, I am satisfied with my job. Mr. Smith stated, Job satisfaction is defined, as employees judgment of how well his job on a whole is satisfying his various needs According to Locke, Job satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable or positive state of mind resulting from appraisal of ones job or job experiences. History of job satisfaction The term job satisfaction was brought to lime light by hoppock (2005). He revived 35 studies on job satisfaction conducted prior to 2003 and observes that Job satisfaction is combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances. That causes a person to say. I m satisfied with my job. Such a description indicate the variety of variables that influence the satisfaction of the individual but tell us nothing about the nature of Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction has been most aptly defined by Pestonjee (2003) as a job, management, personal adjustment social requirement. Morse (2003) considers Job satisfaction as dependent upon job content, identification with the co., financial job status priding group cohesiveness. One of the biggest preludes to the study of job satisfaction was the Hawthorne study. These studies (2004-2003), primarily credited to Elton Mayo of the Harvard Business School, sought to find the effects of various conditions (most notably illumination) on workers productivity. Hawthorne Studies It is considered to be one of the best researches done on the job satisfaction. It was conducted by Mayo, Roethlisberger Dickson during the late 2000s and early 2000s at the Western Electric Company. Western Electric Management enlisted the help of Harvard business School professor is Elton Mayo, F.J Roethlisberger, and William Dickson, to help increase the output of workers assembling telephone release. The research started out as an investigation of the effects of physical working conditions on worker productivity, but ended up very differently. Mayo, Roethlisberger Dickson originally begin experimenting with the amount of lighting, expecting that productivity would rise as elimination increased to an optimum level. However, the hypothesis that productivity would write just as elimination increased to an optimum level was strongly disapproved why, after several experiments in large departments of the plant, it was discovered that changes in productivity occurred quite independently of B level of elimination. Mayo, Roethlisberger Dickson then started experimenting by introducing rest pauses of different lengths and different frequencies during the work day, supplying coffee breaks at various points in the day, and shortening the length of the world today at the work week. The results of the second part of the experiment were more amazing there was an upward trend in output, regardless of the introduction or withdrawal of rest periods, lunches, coffee breaks, shorter workdays, or shorten workweeks. Furthermore, avoid the experiment ended after a year, and the original conditions of work were restored in all previous privileges withdrawn, the daily and weekly output rose to our point higher than at any other time. (Mayo, 2003, pp.62-63) In addition, morale among the relay assembly room workers improved dramatically. There was a sharp increase in the amount of socializing among workers after ours. Moreover, absenteeism decreased 80% (Roethlisberger Dickson 2009). According to Dawis Lofquist (2001), the Hawthorne studies have been credited with limiting research into the causes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. These researches eventually illustrated that original alterations in job situations provisionally enhanced efficiency (called the Hawthorne Effect). Maslows hierarchy of needs Abraham Maslow, in a classic paper published in 2003, outlined the elements of an overall theory of human motivation. Maslow viewed human motivation in terms of a hierarchy of five needs: physiology needs; safety needs; belonging there is an alarm needs; S team needs; and, the need for self actualization (Maslow, 2000). According to Maslow, 2000, in the majors are motivated to fulfill whichever need was pre-potency, almost fourfold, for them at a given time. The pre-potency of the meat depended on the given current situation and recent experiences. Starting with physical needs, which were most basic, each member must be at least partially dissatisfied before the Indian visual experience to the desire to satisfy a need at the next higher level. Maslows need hierarchy is illustrated in figure 2.1. According to Sergiovanni (2004) and Davis and Newstrom (2009), physiological needs more likely to serve as motivators among workers in todays society, as most jobs issue or the fulfillment of physiological needs, such as food and shelter. However, higher level needs (belonging is and loved needs, S team needs, and the need for self actualization) may influence levels of employee motivation (Davis Newstrom, 2009). Figure 2.1: Maslows need hierarchy Levels of job satisfaction Level can be defined as an extent, major, or degree of achievement. Job satisfaction is a difficult construct a defined. Job satisfaction can be defined generally as the degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about their jobs. Importance of job satisfaction Job satisfaction is an important indicator of how employees feel about their job and a predictor of work behavior such as organizational, citizenship, Absenteeism, Turnover. Job satisfaction can partially mediate the relationship of personality variables and deviant work behavior. Common research finding is that job satisfaction is correlated with life style. This correlation is reciprocal meaning the people who are satisfied with the life tends to be satisfied with their jobs and the people who are satisfied their jobs tends to satisfied with their life. This is vital piece of information that is job satisfaction and job performance is directly related to one another. Thus it can be said that, A happy worker is a productive worker. Job Satisfaction: Importance to worker organization Job contentment and work-related achievement are main factors in individual satisfaction, self-worth, sense of worth, and self-development. (Bruce Blackburn, 2002) To the employee, job satisfaction brings a pleasant expressive state that can often lead to an affirmative work attitude. (Schneider, 2001) A pleased worker is more likely to be imaginative, flexible, innovative, and dependable. For the organization, job satisfaction of its workers means a work force that is enthused and dedicated to high quality performance. (Carrell Elbert, 2004) Augmented output- the quantity and quality of output per hour worked seem to be a by creation of enhanced class of working life. It is vital to note that the literature on the association between job happiness and output is neither definite nor consistent. (Glisson Durick, 2008) On the other hand, research dating back to Herzbergs time (2007) has shown at least low association between high confidence and high efficiency and it does seem logical that more satisfied workers will be likely to add more worth to an organization. Discontented employees, who are stimulated by fear of loss of job, will not give 100 percent of their effort for a very long time. Although apprehension is a powerful motivator, it is also a brief one, and also as soon as the threat is lifted performance will decline. Employment satisfaction profits the organization and includes reduction in complaints and grievances, employee absenteeism, work force turnover, and termination; as well as improved regularity and worker morale. (Ryan, 2009) Job liking is also linked with an improved work force and has been found to be a good pointer of prolonged existence. Even though only slight connection has been found amongst job satisfaction and productivity, Brown (2006) writes that few employers have discovered that satisfying or delighting work force is one of the most important prerequisite to satisfying or delighting customers, thus ensuring the growth of bottom line of the organization. Job Satisfaction: Employees Responsibility If job contentment is a worker advantage, certainly the employee must be talented to add to his or her own contentment and comfort on the job. (Joplin et al, 2007) The following suggestions can assist an employee to find his or her own satisfaction at job: search for opportunities to display skills and aptitude. This repeatedly leads to even more demanding work and higher responsibilities, with assistant increases in salary and other recognition and rewards. Build up extraordinary communiquà © skills. Companys value and rewards excellent reading, listening, writing and speaking skills. Be acquainted with more. Obtain new work related information and skill that helps you to complete job more economically and effectively. This will take off monotony and often gets one noticed. Reveal creativity and initiative. Merits like these are respected by most companies and often come with in recognition as well as improved responsibilities and promotions. Initiate teamwork and man management skills. A big part of job related achievement is the aptitude to work well with others to get the job done. (Lyons et al,2003) Accept the diversity in people. Accept people with their differences and their imperfections and learn how to give and receive criticism constructively. (Peterson Gonzalez, 2009) See the value in your work. Appreciating the significance of what one does can lead to satisfaction with the work itself. This help to give meaning to ones existence, thus playing a vital role in job satisfaction. Learn to de-stress. Plan to avoid burn out by developing healthy stress management techniques. Factors of job satisfaction Hoppock, the earliest investigator in this field, in 2005 suggested that there are six major components of job satisfaction. These are as under: The way the individual reacts to unpleasant situations, The facility with which he adjusted himself with other person The relative status in the social and economic group with which he identifies himself The nature of work in relation to abilities, interest and preparation of worker Security Loyalty Herzberg, mausaer, Peterson and capwell in 2007 reviewed more than 150 studies and listed various job factors of job satisfaction. These are briefly defined one by one as follows: Intrinsic aspect of job It includes all of the many aspects of the work, which would tend to be constant for the work regardless of where the work was performed. Supervision This aspect of job satisfaction pertains to relationship of worker with his immediate superiors. Supervision, as a factor, generally influences job satisfaction. Working conditions This includes those physical aspects of environment which are not necessary a part of the work. Hours are included this factor because it is primarily a function of organization, affecting the individuals comfort and convenience in much the same way as other physical working conditions. Wage and salaries This factor includes all aspect of job involving present monitory remuneration for work done. Opportunities for advancement It includes all aspect of job which individual sees as potential sources of betterment of economic position, organizational status or professional experience. Security It is defined to include that feature of job situation, which leads to assurance for continued employment, either within the same company or within same type of work profession. Company management It includes the aspect of workers immediate situation, which is a function of organizational administration and policy. It also involves the relationship of employee with all company superiors above level of immediate supervision. Social aspect of job It includes relationship of worker with the employees specially those employees at same or nearly same level within the organization. Communication It includes job situation, which involves spreading the information in any direction within the organization. Terms such as information of employees status, information on new developments, information on company line of authority, suggestion system, etc, are used in literature to represent this factor. Benefits It includes those special phases of company policy, which attempts to prepare the worker for emergencies, illness, old age, also. Company allowances for holidays, leaves and vacations are included within this factor. Reasons of low job satisfaction Reasons why employees may not be completely satisfied with their jobs: Conflict between co-workers. Conflict between supervisors. Not being opportunity paid for what they do. Have little or no say in decision making that affect employees. Fear of losing their job. Effects of low job satisfaction High absenteeism Absenteeism means it is a habitual pattern of absence from duty or obligation. If there will be low job satisfaction among the employees the rate of absenteeism will definitely increase and it also affects on productivity of organization. In the above diagram line AB shows inverse relationship between job satisfaction and rate of turnover and rate of absenteeism. As the job satisfaction is high the rate of both turns over and absenteeism is low and vive a versa. High turnover In human resource refers to characteristics of a given company or industry relative to the rate at which an employer gains and losses the staff. If the employer is said to be have a high turnover of employees of that company have shorter tenure than those of other companies. Training cost increases As employees leaves organization due to lack of job satisfaction. Then Human resource manager has to recruit new employees. So that the training expenditure will increases. Key parameters for Job Satisfaction Training and Job Satisfaction- Most of the literature in this area has focused on the impact of education and skills on job satisfaction rather than the effect of training as such. The relationship between skill acquisition and job satisfaction is not straightforward. First, there is the distinction between general and specific skills. (Quinn Staines,2009) The portability of general skills may raise job satisfaction as it is easier to move to other jobs where satisfaction is higher. In contrast, specific skills bind the worker to the firm and may reduce satisfaction by creating a barrier to exit as workers will lose a portion of the return on such skills if they move. (Near et al, 2003) This leads on to the question of the matching of individual skills and levels of education with job requirements. If workers are mismatched in terms of skill and education requirements, this may lower job satisfaction, as evidenced in the earlier literature. In one of the few studies to focus on skilling, Allen and van der Velden (2001) differentiated between education and skill mismatches, finding only a weak relationship between the two. Importantly, they found a significant negative relationship between skill mismatch and job satisfaction, while the link between educations mismatches and job satisfaction was insignificant. Training may influence workplace performance directly by raising output per worker, or be measured indirectly through its impact on the wage on the assumption that this is equal to the marginal productivity of labor. (Peterson Gonzalez, 2009) However, this will not be the case if there are imperfections in the product or labor markets. The nature of training has been examined in a number of studies. Thus Barrett and OConnell (2008) found that specific training had a bigger impact on wages and productivity than general training. Mason et al. (2006) found that both value added and product quality was higher where workers were trained to take charge of several production lines at once. Cosh et al. in a series of papers (2008, 2000 and 2003) found that training had a strong and significant effect on employment growth in small firms when it was undertaken regularly rather than on an ad hoc basis. Especially for larger firms there was also an association between intensity of training and profitability. Training may also stimulate innovation in the workplace (Bartle and Lichtenberg, 2007). Therefore it is doubtful whether different types of training impact either equally or positively on performance. Finally, training can have an indirect effect on performance if it increases job satisfaction by, for example, making it easier for employees to perform the job or feel more valued (as in Akerlofs 2002 conceptualization of the labor contract as a gift-exchange). Petty et al.s 2004 meta-analysis confirms such outcomes. In contrast, if workers feel dissatisfied they may react in a number of ways (Farrell, 2003): through a sense of loyalty they may stick it out; use a voice mechanism (Freeman, 2008, Freeman and Medoff, 2004); neglect their responsibilities to the employer by absence, lateness, striking or reduced effort (Akerlof and Yellin, 2006); or exit (Jovanovic, 2009, Burdett and Mortenson, 2008). Quits and Job Satisfaction- Until recently there had been relatively few studies by economists examining the role played by job satisfaction in quitting decisions. The main reason for this was the lack of large sample longitudinal data which could be used to identify job satisfaction in one period and job turnover in subsequent periods. Locke (2006) provided an extensive review of the literature in the psychology field, concluding that a negative correlation coefficient between job satisfaction and employee turnover was almost always obtained. However, correlation does not always imply causation and most of the studies cited by Locke used simple univariate analysis. In one of the seminal papers on job satisfaction, Freeman (2008) was one of the first economists to analyze the connection between quits and job satisfaction. Based on panel data from two different US sources, the National Longitudinal Survey (NLS, 2006-2001) and the Michigan Panel Survey of Income Dynamics (PSID, 2002-73 ), Freeman showed that job satisfaction was positively and significantly related to the probability of quitting. Moreover, he found not only that job satisfaction was quantitatively more important than wages, but also that the causality ran from job satisfaction to future quitting behavior. This relationship was confirmed by Akerlof et al. (2008) using data from the NLS Older Men Survey. Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism-Absenteeism is the term generally used to refer to unscheduled Strategies for Job Satisfaction Strategies for Job Satisfaction Introduction Job satisfaction is one of most important fields of study in the subject of human resource management. This important role of job satisfaction function leads the way in assuring high level of job satisfaction among the employees. Job satisfaction function of any HR vertical of an organization is primarily responsible for productivity of employees and the employee turnover. Since these two aspects can make or break the organizations performance in all areas, it requires attention from top management. (Lovelace Rosen, 2006) Job satisfaction function generally is part of the HR vertical with a clear mandate of motivating employee and continuously striving for higher employee job satisfaction through introduction of new policies and frameworks. The topic forms an integral part of organizational effectiveness and that has instigated me to choose this topic of job satisfaction. I shall try to study the existing literature on job satisfaction and will choose multinational companies to stud y their varied job satisfaction strategies and make analysis. (Parkes et al, 2001) Job satisfaction function is a vast topic and cannot be completely covered in this dissertation. Various researchers have already published their research articles on this subject. I shall be developing on it through understanding the different strategies used by MNCs in todays business environment for maintaining better levels of job satisfaction. Job satisfaction as stated earlier is a complex topic and hence I will try to break it down to simpler and more realistic frameworks to understand the thought process of an organization to ensuring better job satisfaction amongst its employees. (Gruneberg, 2009) According to Wood (2003), job satisfaction is the condition of contentment with ones work and its environment, denoting a positive attitude. Locke (2006) stated that, job satisfaction could be viewed as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experiences. In other words, it can also be stated that, job satisfaction was simply a function of the degree to which a job provided the worker with positively values outcomes. Wanous (2000) said that, job satisfaction was a match between a persons need and the reinforcement received from work performed in an organization. The HR vertical of any organization shall try to achieve higher levels of job satisfaction through various techniques like awards program, job rotation, internal promotion scheme, family tours and training processes. (Rounds et al, 2007) There is no destination to achieving job satisfaction but the journey is perpetual in nature. Continuous improvement is the name of the game in achieving relatively good job satisfaction amongst the employees. The measure of job satisfaction can only be achieved through comparison in similar industries and through the employee turnover and productivity data. (Jackson et al., 2001) Job satisfaction is one of the most widely discussed and enthusiastically studied constructs. However, job satisfaction is among the most difficult constructs to define. A review of literature shows that constituted definitions of the construct vary from one researcher to the next. Wood (2003) describes the job satisfaction as the condition of contentment with ones work and its in my mind, denoting a positive attitude (p.8.). Locke (2006) stated that job satisfaction could be viewed as a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job experiences. (p.1300) There are several reasons for studying job satisfaction. Organizations major job satisfaction primarily because of its presumed direct relationship to the short-term goals of cost reduction through increased individual productivity and reduced absences, errors, and turnover. (Cranny et al, 2002). Levels of job dissatisfaction have been found to be related to job turnover, absences, and tardiness. Turnover rates have been the most consistent major associated with job satisfaction. The potential negative consequences of employee turnover in terms of the impact of organizations. Negative effects of job turnover can include: increased costs to recruit, select and train new employer; demoralization of remaining employees; decreased social relationships among employees; negative public relations; disruption of a hi-fi and two-day activities; and decreased organizational possibilities to pursue growth strategies. In fact, several researchers reported a significant relationship between absenteeism and job satisfaction. According to Lawler (2007), the research evidence clearly shows that employees decisions about whether they will go to work on any given day and whether they will quit as affected by their feelings of job satisfaction. All the literature reviews on the subject have reached the same conclusion. The fact that present satisfaction influences future absenteeism and turnover clearly indicates that the commercial direction is from satisfaction to behavior. The literature also reveals that there is a correlation between job satisfaction and variables such as achievement, recognition, the word itself, responsibility, advancement, policy and administration, supervision, salary, interpersonal relations, working conditions, age, Tenure, educational level, job activities, and gender. The Purpose of the Study The purpose to choose this topic is to analyze the importance of job satisfaction in Multi National Companies (MNCs). The reason to go for MNCs is the increase in the shift over of the employees for future growth. The shifting, thus, includes the satisfaction in the given job role. Through my research, I will try to analyze the causes and effect relationship between the employee and the factors behind job satisfaction in a given MNC. Aim of the Study The main aim of the study is to investigate the remains leading to negative and positive job satisfaction in a MNC. The Objectives of the Study The key objectives of the chosen topic are: Estimating the causes of employee attitudes. Adjudging the results of positive or negative job satisfaction Measuring the employee attitude To assess facet-specific levels of job satisfaction To measure general job satisfaction, Literature Review There are several reasons for studying job satisfaction. Organizations measure job satisfaction primarily because of its presumed direct relationship to the short-term goals of cost reduction through increased individual productivity and reduced absenteeism, errors, and dissatisfaction has been found to be related to job turnover, absenteeism and tardiness. (Glisson Durick, 2008) Turnover rates have been the most constraints measure associated with job satisfaction (Atchison Lofferts, 2002; Brayfield Crockett, 2005, Dawis Lofquist, 2001). Mowday (2004) recapitulate the probable pessimistic significance of employee turnover in terms of the impact on organizations. There are various impacts of pessimism in job satisfaction on the turnover of the company such as: Increase in the recruitment cost. Recruiting new employees and then training them as well. It can lead to reduced social relations ships among employees. No or only few public relations. Reduction in companys prospects which can hamper the growth. According to Lawler (2005), the research evidence clearly shows that employees decisions about whether they will get to work on any given day and whether they will quit are effected by their feelings of job satisfaction. The fact that present satisfaction influences future absenteeism and turnover clearly indicates the causal direction is from satisfaction to behavior. There is a correlation between job satisfaction and variables such as achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, policy and administration, working conditions, supervision, job activities and gender. Research Methodology Saunders et al (2005) Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. The research to be followed is a step-by-step process. This makes the entire research process systematic. Only primary research shall be used to draw inferences. (Ryan, 2009) The sources used shall be of international repute and will be trustworthy. The main source will be case study and also some books, journals, articles and publications including Internet sources. Chapter-2: Literature review An Overview Job satisfaction in considered to ones sensation or circumstances of intelligence regarding environment of their work. Job can be prejudiced by diversity of features like quality of ones relationship with their supervisor, quality of physical environment in which they work, degree of fulfillment in their work, etc. Positive attitude towards job are equivalent to job satisfaction where as negative attitude towards job has been defined variously from time to time. (Cherrington et al, 2009) In short job satisfaction is a persons attitude towards job. Job satisfaction is an attitude which results from balancing summation of many specific likes and dislikes experienced in connection with the job- their evaluation may rest largely upon ones success or failure in the achievement of personal objective and upon perceived combination of the job and combination towards these ends. According to pestonejee, Job satisfaction can be taken as a summation of employees feelings in four important areas. These are: Job-nature of work (dull, dangerous, interesting), hours of work, fellow workers, opportunities on the job for encouragement and progression (prospects), eventually system, attention in work, substantial background, and machines and apparatus. Management- managerial behavior, contribution, rewards and sentence, congratulate and responsibility, leaves strategy and preference. Social relations- associates and acquaintances, neighbors, approach towards populace in society, contribution in social activity scalability and background barricade. Personal adjustment-health and emotionality. Job satisfaction is an indicator of employee productivity and employee behavior at work. This may include inter employee relations, pro-activeness of employee, employee absenteeism no. of feedbacks from employees. These all factors are a direct measure of employee satisfaction of the job. The direct correlation has been established by earlier researchers and more so there is logical evidence to it in any business or industry. (Adams, 2003) The higher levels of job satisfaction is evident in an organization through lower absenteeism rates, low employee turnover, high employee productivity , proactively level of employees, labor unrest issues and participation in managerial decisions. (Saks Ashforth, 2007) Obviously, every organization desires for higher levels of employee job satisfaction; however it is a long drawn process with continuous improvement and direct focus from the senior leadership team of the organization. Job satisfaction cannot be used interchangeably with organizational morale; which the possessions of feeling have being accepted by and belonging to a group of employees through adherence to common goals and confidence in desirability of these goals. (Bedeian et al, 2002) Morale is the by-product of the group, while job satisfaction is more an individual state of mind. Definitions of job satisfaction Different authors give various definitions of job satisfaction. Some of them are taken from the book of D.M. Pestonjee Motivation and Job Satisfaction which are given below: As per Weiss, Job satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable, emotional, state resulting from appraisal of ones job. An effective reaction to ones job. For Blum and Naylor, Job satisfaction is general attitude, which is the result of many specific attitudes in three areas namely: Precise occupation features. Personal distinctiveness Group association exterior from the work According to Glimmer, Job satisfaction is defined, as it is result of various attitudes the person hold towards the job, towards the related factors and towards the life in general. Job satisfaction is defined as any contribution, psychological, physical, and environmental circumstances that cause a person truthfully say, I am satisfied with my job. Mr. Smith stated, Job satisfaction is defined, as employees judgment of how well his job on a whole is satisfying his various needs According to Locke, Job satisfaction is defined as a pleasurable or positive state of mind resulting from appraisal of ones job or job experiences. History of job satisfaction The term job satisfaction was brought to lime light by hoppock (2005). He revived 35 studies on job satisfaction conducted prior to 2003 and observes that Job satisfaction is combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances. That causes a person to say. I m satisfied with my job. Such a description indicate the variety of variables that influence the satisfaction of the individual but tell us nothing about the nature of Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction has been most aptly defined by Pestonjee (2003) as a job, management, personal adjustment social requirement. Morse (2003) considers Job satisfaction as dependent upon job content, identification with the co., financial job status priding group cohesiveness. One of the biggest preludes to the study of job satisfaction was the Hawthorne study. These studies (2004-2003), primarily credited to Elton Mayo of the Harvard Business School, sought to find the effects of various conditions (most notably illumination) on workers productivity. Hawthorne Studies It is considered to be one of the best researches done on the job satisfaction. It was conducted by Mayo, Roethlisberger Dickson during the late 2000s and early 2000s at the Western Electric Company. Western Electric Management enlisted the help of Harvard business School professor is Elton Mayo, F.J Roethlisberger, and William Dickson, to help increase the output of workers assembling telephone release. The research started out as an investigation of the effects of physical working conditions on worker productivity, but ended up very differently. Mayo, Roethlisberger Dickson originally begin experimenting with the amount of lighting, expecting that productivity would rise as elimination increased to an optimum level. However, the hypothesis that productivity would write just as elimination increased to an optimum level was strongly disapproved why, after several experiments in large departments of the plant, it was discovered that changes in productivity occurred quite independently of B level of elimination. Mayo, Roethlisberger Dickson then started experimenting by introducing rest pauses of different lengths and different frequencies during the work day, supplying coffee breaks at various points in the day, and shortening the length of the world today at the work week. The results of the second part of the experiment were more amazing there was an upward trend in output, regardless of the introduction or withdrawal of rest periods, lunches, coffee breaks, shorter workdays, or shorten workweeks. Furthermore, avoid the experiment ended after a year, and the original conditions of work were restored in all previous privileges withdrawn, the daily and weekly output rose to our point higher than at any other time. (Mayo, 2003, pp.62-63) In addition, morale among the relay assembly room workers improved dramatically. There was a sharp increase in the amount of socializing among workers after ours. Moreover, absenteeism decreased 80% (Roethlisberger Dickson 2009). According to Dawis Lofquist (2001), the Hawthorne studies have been credited with limiting research into the causes of job satisfaction and dissatisfaction. These researches eventually illustrated that original alterations in job situations provisionally enhanced efficiency (called the Hawthorne Effect). Maslows hierarchy of needs Abraham Maslow, in a classic paper published in 2003, outlined the elements of an overall theory of human motivation. Maslow viewed human motivation in terms of a hierarchy of five needs: physiology needs; safety needs; belonging there is an alarm needs; S team needs; and, the need for self actualization (Maslow, 2000). According to Maslow, 2000, in the majors are motivated to fulfill whichever need was pre-potency, almost fourfold, for them at a given time. The pre-potency of the meat depended on the given current situation and recent experiences. Starting with physical needs, which were most basic, each member must be at least partially dissatisfied before the Indian visual experience to the desire to satisfy a need at the next higher level. Maslows need hierarchy is illustrated in figure 2.1. According to Sergiovanni (2004) and Davis and Newstrom (2009), physiological needs more likely to serve as motivators among workers in todays society, as most jobs issue or the fulfillment of physiological needs, such as food and shelter. However, higher level needs (belonging is and loved needs, S team needs, and the need for self actualization) may influence levels of employee motivation (Davis Newstrom, 2009). Figure 2.1: Maslows need hierarchy Levels of job satisfaction Level can be defined as an extent, major, or degree of achievement. Job satisfaction is a difficult construct a defined. Job satisfaction can be defined generally as the degree to which individuals feel positively or negatively about their jobs. Importance of job satisfaction Job satisfaction is an important indicator of how employees feel about their job and a predictor of work behavior such as organizational, citizenship, Absenteeism, Turnover. Job satisfaction can partially mediate the relationship of personality variables and deviant work behavior. Common research finding is that job satisfaction is correlated with life style. This correlation is reciprocal meaning the people who are satisfied with the life tends to be satisfied with their jobs and the people who are satisfied their jobs tends to satisfied with their life. This is vital piece of information that is job satisfaction and job performance is directly related to one another. Thus it can be said that, A happy worker is a productive worker. Job Satisfaction: Importance to worker organization Job contentment and work-related achievement are main factors in individual satisfaction, self-worth, sense of worth, and self-development. (Bruce Blackburn, 2002) To the employee, job satisfaction brings a pleasant expressive state that can often lead to an affirmative work attitude. (Schneider, 2001) A pleased worker is more likely to be imaginative, flexible, innovative, and dependable. For the organization, job satisfaction of its workers means a work force that is enthused and dedicated to high quality performance. (Carrell Elbert, 2004) Augmented output- the quantity and quality of output per hour worked seem to be a by creation of enhanced class of working life. It is vital to note that the literature on the association between job happiness and output is neither definite nor consistent. (Glisson Durick, 2008) On the other hand, research dating back to Herzbergs time (2007) has shown at least low association between high confidence and high efficiency and it does seem logical that more satisfied workers will be likely to add more worth to an organization. Discontented employees, who are stimulated by fear of loss of job, will not give 100 percent of their effort for a very long time. Although apprehension is a powerful motivator, it is also a brief one, and also as soon as the threat is lifted performance will decline. Employment satisfaction profits the organization and includes reduction in complaints and grievances, employee absenteeism, work force turnover, and termination; as well as improved regularity and worker morale. (Ryan, 2009) Job liking is also linked with an improved work force and has been found to be a good pointer of prolonged existence. Even though only slight connection has been found amongst job satisfaction and productivity, Brown (2006) writes that few employers have discovered that satisfying or delighting work force is one of the most important prerequisite to satisfying or delighting customers, thus ensuring the growth of bottom line of the organization. Job Satisfaction: Employees Responsibility If job contentment is a worker advantage, certainly the employee must be talented to add to his or her own contentment and comfort on the job. (Joplin et al, 2007) The following suggestions can assist an employee to find his or her own satisfaction at job: search for opportunities to display skills and aptitude. This repeatedly leads to even more demanding work and higher responsibilities, with assistant increases in salary and other recognition and rewards. Build up extraordinary communiquà © skills. Companys value and rewards excellent reading, listening, writing and speaking skills. Be acquainted with more. Obtain new work related information and skill that helps you to complete job more economically and effectively. This will take off monotony and often gets one noticed. Reveal creativity and initiative. Merits like these are respected by most companies and often come with in recognition as well as improved responsibilities and promotions. Initiate teamwork and man management skills. A big part of job related achievement is the aptitude to work well with others to get the job done. (Lyons et al,2003) Accept the diversity in people. Accept people with their differences and their imperfections and learn how to give and receive criticism constructively. (Peterson Gonzalez, 2009) See the value in your work. Appreciating the significance of what one does can lead to satisfaction with the work itself. This help to give meaning to ones existence, thus playing a vital role in job satisfaction. Learn to de-stress. Plan to avoid burn out by developing healthy stress management techniques. Factors of job satisfaction Hoppock, the earliest investigator in this field, in 2005 suggested that there are six major components of job satisfaction. These are as under: The way the individual reacts to unpleasant situations, The facility with which he adjusted himself with other person The relative status in the social and economic group with which he identifies himself The nature of work in relation to abilities, interest and preparation of worker Security Loyalty Herzberg, mausaer, Peterson and capwell in 2007 reviewed more than 150 studies and listed various job factors of job satisfaction. These are briefly defined one by one as follows: Intrinsic aspect of job It includes all of the many aspects of the work, which would tend to be constant for the work regardless of where the work was performed. Supervision This aspect of job satisfaction pertains to relationship of worker with his immediate superiors. Supervision, as a factor, generally influences job satisfaction. Working conditions This includes those physical aspects of environment which are not necessary a part of the work. Hours are included this factor because it is primarily a function of organization, affecting the individuals comfort and convenience in much the same way as other physical working conditions. Wage and salaries This factor includes all aspect of job involving present monitory remuneration for work done. Opportunities for advancement It includes all aspect of job which individual sees as potential sources of betterment of economic position, organizational status or professional experience. Security It is defined to include that feature of job situation, which leads to assurance for continued employment, either within the same company or within same type of work profession. Company management It includes the aspect of workers immediate situation, which is a function of organizational administration and policy. It also involves the relationship of employee with all company superiors above level of immediate supervision. Social aspect of job It includes relationship of worker with the employees specially those employees at same or nearly same level within the organization. Communication It includes job situation, which involves spreading the information in any direction within the organization. Terms such as information of employees status, information on new developments, information on company line of authority, suggestion system, etc, are used in literature to represent this factor. Benefits It includes those special phases of company policy, which attempts to prepare the worker for emergencies, illness, old age, also. Company allowances for holidays, leaves and vacations are included within this factor. Reasons of low job satisfaction Reasons why employees may not be completely satisfied with their jobs: Conflict between co-workers. Conflict between supervisors. Not being opportunity paid for what they do. Have little or no say in decision making that affect employees. Fear of losing their job. Effects of low job satisfaction High absenteeism Absenteeism means it is a habitual pattern of absence from duty or obligation. If there will be low job satisfaction among the employees the rate of absenteeism will definitely increase and it also affects on productivity of organization. In the above diagram line AB shows inverse relationship between job satisfaction and rate of turnover and rate of absenteeism. As the job satisfaction is high the rate of both turns over and absenteeism is low and vive a versa. High turnover In human resource refers to characteristics of a given company or industry relative to the rate at which an employer gains and losses the staff. If the employer is said to be have a high turnover of employees of that company have shorter tenure than those of other companies. Training cost increases As employees leaves organization due to lack of job satisfaction. Then Human resource manager has to recruit new employees. So that the training expenditure will increases. Key parameters for Job Satisfaction Training and Job Satisfaction- Most of the literature in this area has focused on the impact of education and skills on job satisfaction rather than the effect of training as such. The relationship between skill acquisition and job satisfaction is not straightforward. First, there is the distinction between general and specific skills. (Quinn Staines,2009) The portability of general skills may raise job satisfaction as it is easier to move to other jobs where satisfaction is higher. In contrast, specific skills bind the worker to the firm and may reduce satisfaction by creating a barrier to exit as workers will lose a portion of the return on such skills if they move. (Near et al, 2003) This leads on to the question of the matching of individual skills and levels of education with job requirements. If workers are mismatched in terms of skill and education requirements, this may lower job satisfaction, as evidenced in the earlier literature. In one of the few studies to focus on skilling, Allen and van der Velden (2001) differentiated between education and skill mismatches, finding only a weak relationship between the two. Importantly, they found a significant negative relationship between skill mismatch and job satisfaction, while the link between educations mismatches and job satisfaction was insignificant. Training may influence workplace performance directly by raising output per worker, or be measured indirectly through its impact on the wage on the assumption that this is equal to the marginal productivity of labor. (Peterson Gonzalez, 2009) However, this will not be the case if there are imperfections in the product or labor markets. The nature of training has been examined in a number of studies. Thus Barrett and OConnell (2008) found that specific training had a bigger impact on wages and productivity than general training. Mason et al. (2006) found that both value added and product quality was higher where workers were trained to take charge of several production lines at once. Cosh et al. in a series of papers (2008, 2000 and 2003) found that training had a strong and significant effect on employment growth in small firms when it was undertaken regularly rather than on an ad hoc basis. Especially for larger firms there was also an association between intensity of training and profitability. Training may also stimulate innovation in the workplace (Bartle and Lichtenberg, 2007). Therefore it is doubtful whether different types of training impact either equally or positively on performance. Finally, training can have an indirect effect on performance if it increases job satisfaction by, for example, making it easier for employees to perform the job or feel more valued (as in Akerlofs 2002 conceptualization of the labor contract as a gift-exchange). Petty et al.s 2004 meta-analysis confirms such outcomes. In contrast, if workers feel dissatisfied they may react in a number of ways (Farrell, 2003): through a sense of loyalty they may stick it out; use a voice mechanism (Freeman, 2008, Freeman and Medoff, 2004); neglect their responsibilities to the employer by absence, lateness, striking or reduced effort (Akerlof and Yellin, 2006); or exit (Jovanovic, 2009, Burdett and Mortenson, 2008). Quits and Job Satisfaction- Until recently there had been relatively few studies by economists examining the role played by job satisfaction in quitting decisions. The main reason for this was the lack of large sample longitudinal data which could be used to identify job satisfaction in one period and job turnover in subsequent periods. Locke (2006) provided an extensive review of the literature in the psychology field, concluding that a negative correlation coefficient between job satisfaction and employee turnover was almost always obtained. However, correlation does not always imply causation and most of the studies cited by Locke used simple univariate analysis. In one of the seminal papers on job satisfaction, Freeman (2008) was one of the first economists to analyze the connection between quits and job satisfaction. Based on panel data from two different US sources, the National Longitudinal Survey (NLS, 2006-2001) and the Michigan Panel Survey of Income Dynamics (PSID, 2002-73 ), Freeman showed that job satisfaction was positively and significantly related to the probability of quitting. Moreover, he found not only that job satisfaction was quantitatively more important than wages, but also that the causality ran from job satisfaction to future quitting behavior. This relationship was confirmed by Akerlof et al. (2008) using data from the NLS Older Men Survey. Job Satisfaction and Absenteeism-Absenteeism is the term generally used to refer to unscheduled

Primate Virtues: A Cross-species Study of Morality Essay -- Nietzsche

Primate Virtues: A Cross-species Study of Morality In his 1881 book, Daybreak, Friedrich Nietzsche wrote, We do not regard the animals as moral beings. But do you suppose the animals regard us as moral beings? –An animal which could speak said, ‘Humanity is a prejudice of which we animals at least are free’.[1] This passage expresses Nietzsche’s belief that animals do not judge human actions as morally good or bad. Only humans think in moral terms, Nietzsche believes –a prejudice of which â€Å"animals at least are free†. That is, animals do not believe in morality; and modern philosophers, as well as behavioral biologists, would have to agree. Nobody suspects their dog of trying to maximize utility, follow categorical imperatives, or do penance for his sins. Moral agency is uniquely human in this respect; only we maintain that our actions have some greater—moral—significance. Ethical theories try to provide us with a coherent and rational account of precisely this moral aspect of human thought and action. But no matter how coherent and rational a given moral system may be, if it becomes too detached from our regular deliberations and actions, we do not consider it a correct account of our normal moral reasoning. But what exactly constitutes this â€Å"normal moral reasoning† that humans allegedly possess? In this paper, I argue that human â€Å"moral reasoning† is actually a normal biological phenomenon that we share with the rest of the animal community, most noticeably with our closest primate relatives. I demonstrate this by using the standards provided by a normative moral theory to evaluate the actions of one of our animal relatives –Pan Troglodytes, or the African chimpanzee, illustrating the fact that these ... .... Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 1986. (p. 378). [7] Aristotle. The Nicomachean Ethics. Trans. David Ross. Revised by J. L. Ackrill and J.O. Urmson. Oxford / New York: Oxford University Press. (p. 64). [8] Ibid. p. 70. [9] Ibid. p. 69. [10] Ibid. p. 35. [11] See Pears, David. â€Å"Aristotle’s Analysis of Courage†. Midwest Studies in Philosophy 3: 273-285. 1978. [12] See â€Å"Modern Moral Philosophy†, esp. p. 354. [13] Mackie, John. â€Å"A Refutation of Morals†. In 20th Century Ethical Theory. Ed. Steven M. Cahn and Joram G. Haber. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. 1946. [14] See Regal, Philip J. The Anatomy of Judgment. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. 1990. [15] â€Å"A Refutation of Morals†, p. 146. [16] Ibid. p. 146.